How Were Medieval Battles Fought? A Guide to Medieval Warfare
The medieval period was a time of near-constant conflict throughout Europe. In spite of the seemingly endless wars, full-scale pitched battlesthe favorite subject of history enthusiasts and Hollywood alikewere actually rare compared to other types of warfare. However, when they did occur, they could play a pivotal role in a military campaign. When two armies clashed, how did the engagement play out?Medieval Style Warfare(Le roi Jean la) Bataille de Poitiers (King John at the battle of Poitiers), by Eugene Delacroix, 1830. Source: LouvreThe medieval period was a long period that extended from around 500 to 1500 CE, though when imaging warfare, most of us are thinking of the High and Late Middle Ages between 1000 and 1500 CE. Most of Europe at this time was ruled under the feudal system, where individual lords pledged their loyalty to other nobles, culminating with a monarch. With such a decentralized system, nobles constructed castles as power bases to control their fiefdoms and defend against attacks, and every city had stout walls surrounding them. With these strongholds so commonplace, siege warfare was much more common than open field battles.Another method of warfare was raiding. By attacking the soft targets of the countryside, the economic productivity of the lands would be destroyed, and the defending government would lose legitimacy since they were unable to protect their lands. Raids could take any number of forms, but probably the most famous was the chevauche, which saw mounted English soldiers destroying the French countryside during the Hundred Years War. They moved quickly, seizing both wealth and hostages and then burning the rest. This undermined the trust in the ruling class, who could not protect their own lands, while enriching the English raiders.Though open field battles were rare by comparison, they did occur, usually in the context of raiding or sieges. An army must confront an enemy raiding its lands, or intercept a relief force trying to break a siege, which would force a field battle to happen.Who Fought in Medieval Battles?Italian suit of armor, c. 1400-1450. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtThere were a very large number of battles that were fought during the Middle Ages, so it is necessary to make some generalizations. The feudal system meant that there was very little in the way of standing armies, so when a campaign was called by the monarch, the noble of each fiefdom was responsible for bringing a designated number of soldiers, or paying a fee that was used to hire mercenaries. For the most part, the soldiers provided their own equipment, so the quality and type of equipment varied wildly based on the individuals being called up for service.Armies were broadly divided into three troop types: the cavalry, infantry, and missile troops. The cavalry was usually made up of knights who were wealthy enough to acquire the best weapons and armor available at the time. Their horses were specially trained and bred to be able to carry the weight of an armored warrior on their back. In the 11th century, cavalry began to utilize the couched lance, where the lance was tucked under the arm of the knight holding it in place. The weight of the horse and the rider would be imparted to the target upon impact, and a massed charge of heavy cavalry would be absolutely devastating.Light cavalry, usually made up of commoners who had enough wealth for a horse, were also employed. They were used for scouting and raiding, to harass the enemy, or to ride down those fleeing the battlefield. They would have less armor and lower quality weapons than their knightly superiors, but could be invaluable on the battlefield.Longbows found on the wreck of the Mary Rose, 1545. Source: Mary Rose MuseumMost of the lower classes were used as infantry, since they were unlikely to be able to afford a warhorse. The exact equipment type varied based on the technological advances of each era, but the primary weapon would be a spear or some other polearm. This weapon was cheap and easy to produce, simple to wield, and provided more reach than other weapons. In a dense block of soldiers, the serried wall of spears would be an effective barrier against an enemy. They would also be armed with a shield, usually a triangular shaped heater shield, and armor would consist of a simple helmet and whatever other type of protection they could afford, ranging from metal armor such as plate or mail, or just a padded cloth jacket such as a gambeson.Missile troops were armed with either crossbows or bows. Bows required a tremendous amount of training and physical strength to use effectively. These men were paid higher wages than the spearmen, but they had to prove their proficiency with the bow before being accepted. Crossbows did not require the same amount of training to use as a bow, and shot much more slowly. They were still invaluable on the battlefield and some crossbowmen, such as those from Genoa, were highly prized as mercenaries. Slingers were also used on occasion, but much less often than in the ancient world.Battles by the NumbersWilliam the Conqueror on the Bayeux Tapestry, c. 11th century. Source: Magna Carta ProjectOnce assembled, medieval armies were much smaller than their ancient counterparts. At the battle of Cannae in 216 BCE, the Romans fielded a force said to be over 80,000 strong, facing off against the Carthaginians who had roughly 40-50,000. At the battle of Agincourt in 1415, the English army numbered between 6-8,000 men, while their French adversaries had between 15-25,000 men in total, which was a very large army for the era. Even if the ancient numbers are exaggerated, it still shows that medieval armies were tiny in comparison.The bulk of the army was made up of infantrymen, which could make up between 70-90 percent of the contingent, though the exact ratio could fluctuate wildly based on the individual circumstances. Even though they were the core of the army, the mounted knights made up a tiny proportion of the total numbers, a few hundred at most. In the latter part of the Middle Ages, the English had an unprecedented amount of missile troops, specifically the famed longbowmen, who outnumbered the other elements of the army at a ratio of about five to one, and even as much as ten to one at times. This emphasis on ranged weaponry was highly unusual during the era.Preparing for BattleLance head, Spanish, c. 15th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtIf a battle was inevitable, both sides tried to position their forces in an advantageous way. High ground was sought out as much as possible. An elevated position allows for better visibility and longer range shooting. Soldiers already on the high ground also did not have to worry about becoming fatigued climbing uphill during an attack and could charge downwards with more momentum. Armies would also try to anchor their flanks. One of the most common tactics was to outflank, or maneuver around the side of the enemy. To prevent this, armies positioned themselves with a barrier such as a body of water or difficult terrain.As a general rule, the infantry formed up in the center, with the missile troops either in front of the formation to act as skirmishers or placed behind the infantry, using the wall of spears and shields as a bulwark for protection. Cavalry would be on the flanks, using their mobility to sweep around the enemy where possible, or exploit gaps in the enemys line. The heavy cavalry could be posted on the flanks, but could also be formed up in the center ready to deliver the decisive blow to crush a wavering enemy.Command and ControlBattle of Crecy, by Jean Froissart, c. 15th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOn the battlefield, the army would be arranged into groups called battles, usually three in number. While on the march, the front battle was called the van or vanguard, then there was the middle or middle guard, and the rear or rearguard. Also called wards, these sections made commanding and maneuvering the army easier. Each section would have its own sub-commander who would make tactical decisions without having to waste valuable time asking for orders from the overall commander.On the battlefield, orders were given through the use of trumpets, drums, and verbal commands. Battle standards or flags were also used as a visual signal to advance or fall back. For the individual soldier, this was a simplified way to keep track of what he was supposed to be doing. Even if other signals such as trumpets or shouted orders arent heard, they would only have to look up, see the standard, and then follow. If the standard is advancing, then advance, if it is retreating, then fall back. Standards would be placed near the commander of the individual unit, the sub-commanders, and the overall commander who was often the monarch as a way to note their location at a glance across the battlefield. If a message must be sent, the messenger would know instantly where to go. This also meant the enemy knew where the important people were, and would give special attention to those spots.The Heat of BattleCrossbow, Central European, possibly Austrian, c. 1425-1475. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtWith both armies drawn up for battle, what happened next was often a waiting game. No army would give up a suitable defensive position unless needed. Eventually, the commander or a sub commander would see an opportunity or simply become impatient and order an attack. This could be from the cavalry, infantry, or missile troops, depending on the situation. If there were ranged troops available, they could be used to goad the enemy into action. At the battle of Agincourt, some English archers shot long range at the assembling French, provoking them into attacking the English lines before they were ready. They charged uphill over muddy ground against the entrenched English without organization or planning and were crushed.Eventually, someone made a move and the battle began in earnest. There were endless ways this could play out. Generally, there was skirmishing by missile troops to harass the enemy or break up their formations, light cavalry threatening the flanks and looking for opportunities, and the infantry standing firm or advancing as needed. The main role of the infantry was to act as a screen to protect the cavalry and missile troops. Should the attack fail, they could withdraw behind the foot soldiers, reform and try again. The infantry could also be used to hold ground, something that the other troop types would have difficulty doing.The mainstay of a medieval battle was the hammer of the mounted knights. When the opportunity presented itself, the cavalry would charge. This would not be a mad rush towards the enemy, but a carefully orchestrated advance. They would first advance at a walk, a measured pace to close the distance as much as possible before increasing speed. They would accelerate to a trot, then a canter, roughly equivalent to a human jogging. This gave the cavalry the chance to build up momentum without tiring the horses, and still giving the commander a chance to call off the attack if necessary. They would only break into a gallop when they were a short distance from the target. A massed charge of cavalry with couched lances could shatter the enemy, breaking open their formation and causing a rout.Aftermath: Mopping UpBattle of Meaux, by Jean Froissart, c. 15th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe key to winning a battle was morale and discipline. Once one sides morale drops, they will break their formation and try to run away. It was then that the battle was essentially over, but the slaughter would begin. Outside of the formation, a soldier is vulnerable and can be surrounded or picked off almost at will. Light cavalry were deployed to run down the fleeing enemy, cutting them down as they fled. It has been estimated that up to 90 percent of the casualties inflicted on an army occurred during a rout, which explains why the casualty numbers for a battle are often lopsided. As a general rule, an army retreated after suffering between 15 and 30 percent casualty rate. Fighting to the death almost never happened.More often than not, a single weak point caused the formation, and eventually the entire army, to collapse. Flanks were vulnerable to being rolled up and the center could be broken. Unless reserves could stem the tide, these breaks could cause the entire army to crumble into flight. Momentum was key, and a trickle can soon turn into a flood.After claiming the field, the victorious army tended to their own wounded and dead, stripped the vanquished enemy of armor, weapons, and valuables, and dealt with any prisoners. If wealthy enough, they could be ransomed back to their families for money. If not, their treatment could range from execution to mutilation, such as the removal of a finger or eye. Sometimes they were simply let go, depending on the situation.There was no one way to fight a battle and there were exceptions to everything, based on the specific circumstances. As time wore on, changes in how governments and armies formed, as well as technological advances, changed the way battles were fought, leaving the medieval way of fighting a relic of the past.
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